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UCD, 1979), pp 165-87.
Lee, J.J.. Ireland 1912-85 (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989).
Idem.. The modernisation of Irish society. 1848-1918 (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1973).
['Idem' means 'the same author'. Thus, you are saying here that the author of Modernisation is exactly the
same as the author directly preceding it, in this case J.J. Lee.]
Mac Suibhne, Peadar (ed.). Paul Cullen and his contemporaries (5 vols., Naas:
Leinster Leader, 1961-77).
 Robert Whyte's The Ocean Plague: The Diary of a Cabin Passenger, 1847 in Liz Szabo,
Interpreting the Irish famine, 1846-1850 (2 May 1996). Available [Online]:
www.people.virginia.edu/~eas5e/Irish/Whyte.html> [18 Sept. 2002].
PART 4 COMMON GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION
MISTAKES
" sentence fragments
Sentences without the proper subject/verb combination. In this excerpt it is the last two
sentences which are problematic. The middle sentence is missing both a subject and a
verb, while the last is missing a subject.
i.e.  I ve given a number of priests and parish retreats along that west coast of Scotland. To
Catholics who had just learnt to hold their heads high. Stood on streets where 50 years ago a
Catholic couldn t walk. - Sunday Tribune. 22 Sept. 1996.
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" run-on sentences
Fairly self-explanatory, they are sentences trying to express too many ideas. It occurs
when independent clauses are run together without any punctuation or conjunction.
Try separating the clauses with a semi-colon or start an entirely new sentence.
" using an apostrophe
Apostrophes indicate the possessive case. This means they indicate  belonging to
singular nouns use apostrophe  s
i.e. the farmer s land, the government s plans
plural nouns use an apostrophe, with no following  s
i.e. politicians efforts
NB: Possessive pronouns (like his, her, its, our, your, their) do not use an apostrophe.
Avoid the common error of writing  it s (a contraction for  it is ) instead of  its
(possessive). Think of the slogan for Senator's Amber Sherry:
 Made its way - the way it s made.
" avoid use of the passive voice
The passive voice is an indirect way of expressing action in a sentence and it is easily
recognized. The verb contains some form of the verb  to be , followed by a past
participle and the conjunction  by . It turns the direct object into the subject of the
verb. For example:
i.e. Fenians were criticised by Cullen because of their commitment to physical force nationalism.
It is generally a weak construction because it tends to obscure the doer of the action or
the action they describe. Instead, try to use more direct, assertive language.
i.e. Cullen critcised the Fenians because of their commitment to physical force nationalism.
" trouble with tense
Historical writing is conducted primarily in the past tense; be careful to avoid the
present tense, unless stating the opinions of a living historian or writer
i.e. The Third Home Rule crisis began in 1912.
i.e. Emmet Larkin calls the changes in the Catholic church a  devotional revolution .
" quotation marks
Marks should be placed around passages quoted directly from another source. In
Britain and Ireland, the common usage is to use single quotation marks (   ). For a
quote within a quote, use double quotation marks (   ).
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" avoid using the first person
The use of constructions like  I intend to prove or  I will argue that or  This essay will
show are awkward and unsightly. If possible, eliminate them and express your ideas
in a more detached fashion.
poor: Therefore, I believe that I have shown that the rapid growth in Belfast s population led to a
rise in sectarian tensions within the city.
better: As a result, the rapid growth in Belfast s population led to a rise in sectarian tensions within
the city.
©Janice Holmes, September 2002
Acknowledgements
Colin Harper, Assignments (UUJ handout, 1997).
Colin Norman, Writing essays: a short guide (2nd ed., Kingston: Queen s UP, n.d.).
Margot Northey, Making sense: a student's guide to, writing and style (Toronto: Oxford UP,
1983).
Alice Oshima and Ann Hogue, Writing academic english (2nd ed., New York, 1978).
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